Comparative Evaluation of Classical, Hybrid, and RL-Based 3D Trajectory Planning for Multi-UAV Systems
Ilya Mashkov, Angelika Kochetkova, Valerii Serpiva, Grigoriy Yashin, Pavel Golikov · Drones · 2026
This study investigates offline trajectory planning strategies for multi-UAV missions in complex 3D environments, with the aim of systematically comparing classical, hybrid, and reinforcement learning-based approaches under unified evaluation conditions. Two simulation scenarios were considered: an uneven terrain environment with elevation-induced constraints and a planar obstacle-rich environment. The evaluated planners include graph-based (A*), sampling-based (RRT, RRT*), gradient-based (APF), a hybrid APF B-RRT* method, and a DQN-based reinforcement learning planner with spatial attention and reward shaping. Performance was assessed using geometric, safety, energetic, and computational metrics. The results show that A* consistently produces the shortest and most stable trajectories with low energy consumption but at increased computational cost in high-resolution environments. Sampling-based planners exhibit higher variability and planning time, while APF achieves computational efficiency but may violate safety margins. The hybrid planner provides improved robustness across scenarios. The reinforcement learning planner demonstrates consistent safety compliance and strong inter-UAV separation in both environments, also with longer trajectories and higher energy usage. Overall, the study highlights trade-offs between determinism, scalability, safety, and adaptability across planning paradigms.