Side-Channel Attacks on VOLEitH Signature Schemes
Sönke Jendral, Elena Dubrova · IACR Communications in Cryptology · 2026
The ongoing transition to post-quantum cryptography has highlighted the need for digital signature schemes offering diverse performance and security trade-offs. Among the candidates in NIST’s ongoing post-quantum signature standardisation process is FAEST, a scheme built upon the Vector Oblivious Linear Evaluation in-the-Head (VOLEitH) paradigm introduced in 2023. VOLEitH enables efficient zero-knowledge proofs with competitive signature sizes under conservative assumptions, allowing FAEST to rely primarily on the one-wayness of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Despite their promising efficiency, VOLEitH-based signature schemes have remained relatively unexplored from a physical security perspective. In this paper, we present the first side-channel security evaluation. Specifically, we demonstrate two single-trace, deep learning-assisted power analysis attacks on the masked implementation of FAEST by Aranha, Degn, Eilath, Nielsen, and Scholl. These attacks exploit leakage from witness bits and VOLE tag computations, recovering the full secret key with success probability above 0.99 from a single signature on an ARM Cortex-M4 processor. We further analyse how the VOLEitH construction enables profiling of VOLE tags without knowledge of the secret key and how even partial leakage of these tags compromises security. Finally, we discuss practical countermeasures to mitigate such leakages and strengthen the physical resilience of VOLEitH-based signature implementations.