From Data Universalism to Data Particularism: Epistemologizing Digital Sovereignty Based on Germany's and Japan's COVID-19 Responses
Harald Kümmerle, Johannes Thumfart · Global Studies Quarterly · 2025
Abstract This article examines the use of digital technologies by Germany and Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic from the perspective of two divergent epistemologies of data, “data universalism” and “data particularism.” Data universalism is grounded in large-scale, context-free data aggregation. In contrast, data particularism interprets data in context, factoring in spatial, cultural, and institutional particularities. In line with WHO recommendations, Germany focused on widespread PCR testing and used case incidence as an indicator for imposing comprehensive lockdowns. Japan, on the other hand, adopted a context-specific approach that focused on detecting and preventing infection clusters, combined with flexible and targeted measures that took into account material spaces and cultural characteristics. Despite the Japanese approach's lower public approval in the first two years of the pandemic and despite its failure to avert an overload of the health system—which the German approach did achieve—, Japan outperformed Germany in terms of selected key metrics at the end of the COVID-19 pandemic. We argue that, beyond COVID-19, data particularism, as exemplified in Japan's COVID-19 response, can be a valuable strategy to address the epistemic and political shortcomings of data universalism. In particular, we argue that in the context of the broader debate about digital sovereignty, data particularism is attractive for traditional manufacturing powers, such as Japan and Germany, that are rich in context-specific data but dependent on US and Chinese Big Tech. We describe the turn towards different epistemologies of data as an epistemologization of the digital sovereignty debate.