The Effectiveness of Virtual Digital Human Pedagogical Agents in Virtual Reality Learning Environments: A Meta-Analysis of 36 Empirical Studies
Chuan Zhang, Lan Mo · Journal of Visual and Performing Arts Research · 2025
Virtual Digital Human Pedagogical Agents (VDHPAs) have emerged as vital tools in online and blended learning environments. However, the extent to which they improve learning outcomes in Virtual Reality (VR) environments remains inconclusive. This meta-analysis synthesizes findings from 36 empirical studies conducted between 2013 and 2023 to examine the effectiveness of VDHPAs in VR-based learning. Specifically, we analysed two process-oriented variables—cognitive load and social presence—and three outcome-oriented variables—retention, transfer, and other assessment types. The results indicate that while VDHPAs do not significantly reduce cognitive load (g = -0.084), they significantly enhance learners’ social presence (g = 0.402). Additionally, VDHPAs were found to improve retention (g = 0.451), transfer (g = 0.288), and other test scores (g = 0.423). Moderator analyses revealed that the effects vary depending on agent design features (e.g., gestures, voice, facial expression), content characteristics (e.g., subject domain, knowledge type), and learner attributes (e.g., education level, prior knowledge). This review further discusses the implications of agent embodiment, the "uncanny valley" in affective response, and challenges in long-term outcome assessments. The study contributes to a deeper understanding of how to optimise VDHPAs for immersive learning experiences and highlights directions for future interdisciplinary research in educational technology and digital arts.