Predicting Learning and Affect from Multimodal Data Streams in Task-Oriented Tutorial Dialogue.
Joseph F. Grafsgaard, Joseph B. Wiggins, Kristy Elizabeth Boyer, Eric Wiebe, James C. Lester · 2014
Learners experience a wide array of cognitive and affective states during tutoring. Detecting and responding to these states is a core problem of adaptive learning environments that aim to foster motivation and increase learning. Recognizing learner affect through nonverbal behavior is particularly challenging, as students display affect across numerous modalities. This study utilizes an automatically extracted set of multimodal nonverbal behaviors and task actions to predict learning and affect in a data set of sixty-three computer-mediated human tutoring sessions. Predictive models of post-session self-reported engagement, frustration, and learning were evaluated with leave-one-out cross-validation. Nonverbal behaviors conditioned on task events and typing were found to be more predictive than incoming student self-efficacy and pretest score. Face and gesture were predictive of engagement and frustration, while face and posture was predictive of learning. The nonverbal model features captured moments when students were most active on the task, such as writing and testing the Java program. These results provide initial evidence linking affect, moment-by-moment multimodal nonverbal behavior, and task performance during tutoring. They improve understanding of learner affect and enable automated tutorial interventions that adapt to student states as a highly effective human tutor would.